Main Article Content
Abstract
The steady increase in jet fuel prices in recent years has accelerated the quest for greater economy in airline operations. While improvements in aerodynamic efficiency, engine fuel efficiency, etc., have been sought, lighter and stronger materials for aircraft structural components remain a very important goal. The percentage of advanced composites, utilizing carbon fibers, in modern aircraft has reached 50 percent. The trend now is to use nano reinforcements such as graphene and carbon nanotubes to further reduce the structural weight. Due to the difficulties in fabricating nanocomposites with a high enough volume fraction of nano reinforcement, the nano reinforcements are either added to the polymer matrix or grown on the carbon fibers. The nano reinforcements are multi-functional; thus, in addition to contributing strength, they contribute to other properties such as electrical conductivity which in turn enhances the lightning strike protection, electrostatic discharge, electromagnetic shielding, etc. This paper summarizes these aspects and also describes the applications of nanocomposites in aircraft interiors, brake components, aircraft repair, etc.
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Article Details
References
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- Peterka Amanda., "Biofuels: Clean, Green Options Lacking as Airlines Seek Alternatives to Petroleum", Greenwire, E and E Publishing, LLC, January 14, 2013.
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- Red Chris., "Composites in Aircraft Interiors, 2012- 2022", High Performance Composites, pp.54-59, September, 2012.
- Black Sara., "Advanced Materials for Aircraft Interiors", High-Performance Composites, pp.38-42, November, 2006.
- Reals Kerry., "Interiors: Airlines put Aircraft Interiors on a Diet to Tackle Fuel Costs, Improve Green Credentials", http://blog.apex.aero/cabin-interior/interiors- airlines-put-aircraft-interiors-diet-tackle-fue l-...., 2013.
- Katsnelson, M.I., "Graphene: Carbon in Two Dimensions", Cambridge University Press, 2012.
- Dresselhaus, M.S., Dresselhaus, G. and Eklund, P.C., "Science of Fullerenes and Carbon Nanotubes: Their Properties and Applications", Academic Press, 1996.
- Harris, P.J.F., "Carbon Nanotube Science", Cambridge University Press, 2009.
- Fennessey, S. F., "Continuous Carbon Nanofibers", VDM Verlag, 2008.
- Perica-Tripalo, A., "Montmorillonite Nanoclays and Ceramic Nanoparticulates as Candidate Reinforcements in Thermoplastic Polyimide Matrix Nanocomposites", Colorado State University Press, 2003.
- Ayandele, E., Sarkar, B. and Alexandridis, P., "Polyhedral Oligomeric Silsesquioxane (POSS)-Containing Polymer Nanocomposites", Nanomaterials, pp.445-475, 2012.
- Camargo, P.E.C., Satyanarayana, K.G. and Wypych, F., "Nanocomposites: Synthesis, Structure, Properties and Opportunities", Material Research, Vol.12, 2009, pp.1-39.
- Borgonovo, C., "Aluminum Nano-Composites for Elevated Temperature Applications", Appendix A, Master of Science Thesis in Material Science and Engineering, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 2010.
- Sun, X., Stansfield, B. L., Dodelet, J. P. and Dsilets, S., "Growth of Carbon Nanotubes on Carbon Paper by Ohmically Heating Silane-Dispersed Catalytic Sites", Chem. Phys. Lett., Vol.363, pp.415, 2002.
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- Cao, X., Lee, L. J., Widya, T. and Macosko, C., "Polyurethane/Clay Nanocomposites Foams: Processing, Structure and Properties", Polymer, Vol.46, pp.775-783, 2005.
- Maleque, M. A. and Abdullahi, U., "Materials and Processing Route for Aircraft Brake System", Inter-national Journal of Mechanical and Materials Engineering (IJMME), Vol.8, pp.14-20, 2013.
- Allen, T., Miller, T. and Preston, "Operational Advantages of Carbon Brakes", Aero Quarterly, pp.17- 18, July-September, 2009.
- Bakshi, S.R., Lahiri, D. and Agarwal, A., "Carbon Nanotube Reinforced Metal Matrix Composites - A Review", International Materials Reviews, Vol.55, No.1, pp.41-64, 2010.
- Compart, A., "Aircraft Retirement Age Drops Again", Aviation Week and Space Technology, July, 2012.
- Gkikas, G., Sioulas, D., Lekatou, A., Barkoula, N., M. and Paipetis, A.S., "Enhanced Bonded Aircraft Repair Using Nano-Modified Adhesives", Materials and Design, Vol.41, pp.394-402, 2012.
- Kessler, M. R. and Akine, M., "Environmentally Benign Repair of Composites Using High Temperature Cyanate Ester Nanocomposites", Final Report SERDP Project WP-1580, October, 2010.
- Sheng, X., "Polymer Nanocomposites for High Temperature Composite Repair", Iowa State University, 2008, Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Paper Number 10282.
- Gogotsi, Y. G. and Uvarova, I.V., "Nanostructured Materials and Coatings for Biomedical and Sensor Applications, Springer, 2003.
- Wei, R., Cheruvu, N. S. and Coulter, K. E., "Super Hard, Very Tough", Spring 2008 Technology Today, Southwest Research Institute.
- Wood Karen., "Ceramic-Matrix Composites Heat Up", High Performance Composites, pp.38-45, November, 2013.
- Sanchez, C., Julian, B., Belleville, P. and Popall, M., "Hybrid Materials: A Very Old History from Mother Nature to Man-Made Materials", Journal of Materials Chemistry, Vol.15, pp.3559-3560, 2005.
- Peng, H-X., "Polyurethane Nanocomposite Coatings for Aeronautical Applications", Chapter 8 in "Multifunctional Polymer Nanocomposites", Ed. by Jinsong, L., 2011, CRC Press.
- Asfa-Wossen, L., "Nanocomposites Take Flight- HiPerNano 2012 Report", Materials World Magazine, June 04, 2012.
- Johnson, D., "When a Two-Percent Solution Equals $22 Million, Nanotechnology Matters", IEEE Spectrum, February 14, 2011.
- Thomas, S.K., Cassoni, R. P. and MacArthur, C., D., "Aircraft Anti-Icing and De-Icing Techniques and Modeling", Journal of Aircraft, Vol.33, No.5, September- October, 1996.
- Leng, J. and Lau, A. K., "Multifunctional Polymer Nanocomposites", CRC Press, January, 2011.
- Shi, H., Ok, J.G., Baac, H. W. and Guo, L. J., "Low Density Carbon Nanotube Forest as an Index- Matched and Near Perfect Absorption Coating", Applied Physics Letters, Vol.99, Issue 21, 211103, 2011.
- Dillow, C., "Carbon Nanotube Stealth Paint Could Make Any Object Ultra-Black", Popular Science, December 6, 2011.
- Katz, J., "Lockheed Martin Gives Innovation New Wings", Industry Week, May 14, 2012.
- Johnson, D., "Aircraft Nanocomposites that Provide Early Warning System for Structural Failures", IEEE Spectrum, November, 2011.
- Williams, M., "Nano-infused Paint can Detect Strain", RICE University News and Media, June 21, 2012.
- "Nano-Infused Paint can Detect Strain", Design Products and Applications, June 25, 2012.
- Chakravarthi, D.K., Khabashesku, V.N., Vaidyanathan, R., Blaine, J., Yarlagadda, S., Roseman, D., Zeng, Q. and Barrera, E. V., "Carbon Fiber- Bismaleimide Composites Filled with Nickel-Coated Single- Walled Carbon Nanotubes for Lightning Strike Protection", Advanced Functional Materials, Vol.21, pp.2527-2533, 2011.
- Black, S., "Lightning Strike Protection Strategies for Composite Aircraft", High Performance Composites, pp.52-57, May, 2013.
- Chong, D., "Nanotechnology for Aerospace Applications: The Potential, www.nasc.com/nanometa /Plenary%20Talk%20Chong.pdf, 2009.
- Edelmann, K., Rackers, B. and Farmer, B., L., "Nanocomposites for Future Airbus Airframes", www.dlr.de/fa/Portaldata/17/Resources/.../institut/. ../Edelmann.pdf , 2008.
- "Carbon Nanotubes Take Flight in Aerobatic Aircraft", Composites World, 2008. http://www.compositesworld. com/news/carbon-nanotubes-take-flight -in-aerobatic-aircraft.
References
Kaufman Markus., "Cost/Weight Optimization of Aircraft Structures", Licentiate Thesis, KTH School of Engineering Sciences, Sweden, 2008.
Peterka Amanda., "Biofuels: Clean, Green Options Lacking as Airlines Seek Alternatives to Petroleum", Greenwire, E and E Publishing, LLC, January 14, 2013.
Davies Alex., "Sky-High Fuel Costs are Excellent News for Boeing and Airbus", Transportation, Business Insider, http://www.businessinsider.com/highfuel- costs-help-boeing-and-airbus-2013-7.
Furdek Dave., "Aerospace Structural Material Certification", Boeing Report No. 21711-120, February, 2011.
U. S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Advisory Circular on Composite Aircraft Structure, AC No: 20-107B, September, 2009.
Mouritz Adrian P., "Introduction to Aerospace Materials", Woodhead Publishing, India, 2012.
McConnell, Vicki P., "Thicker Laminate Structure in New Commercial Passenger Aircraft will Affect Maintainability", Reinforced Plastics, November/ December, 2011.
"Aviation Safety: Status of FAA’s Actions to Oversee the Safety of Composite Airplanes", United States Government Accountability Office, September, 2011, GAO-11-849.
Campbell Jr. F. C., "Manufacturing Technology for Aerospace Structural Materials", Elsevier, August,s 2011.
Baker Alan., Dutton Stuart and Kelly Donald., "Composite Materials for Aircraft Structures", 2nd Edition, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
Marks Paul., "Report Questions Long-Term Safety of Composite Planes", New Scientist, Issue 2837, November, 2011.
Vlot, A., Vogelesang, L. B. and de Vries, T.J., "Towards Application of Fibre Metal Laminates in Large Aircraft", Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology, Vol.71, No.6, pp.558-570, 1999.
Prabhakaran Ramamurthy., "Lightning Strikes on Metal and Composite Aircraft and Their Mitigation", Journal of Aerospace Science and Technologies, Vol. 63, No.3, pp.208-222, August, 2011.
Red Chris., "Composites in Aircraft Interiors, 2012- 2022", High Performance Composites, pp.54-59, September, 2012.
Black Sara., "Advanced Materials for Aircraft Interiors", High-Performance Composites, pp.38-42, November, 2006.
Reals Kerry., "Interiors: Airlines put Aircraft Interiors on a Diet to Tackle Fuel Costs, Improve Green Credentials", http://blog.apex.aero/cabin-interior/interiors- airlines-put-aircraft-interiors-diet-tackle-fue l-...., 2013.
Katsnelson, M.I., "Graphene: Carbon in Two Dimensions", Cambridge University Press, 2012.
Dresselhaus, M.S., Dresselhaus, G. and Eklund, P.C., "Science of Fullerenes and Carbon Nanotubes: Their Properties and Applications", Academic Press, 1996.
Harris, P.J.F., "Carbon Nanotube Science", Cambridge University Press, 2009.
Fennessey, S. F., "Continuous Carbon Nanofibers", VDM Verlag, 2008.
Perica-Tripalo, A., "Montmorillonite Nanoclays and Ceramic Nanoparticulates as Candidate Reinforcements in Thermoplastic Polyimide Matrix Nanocomposites", Colorado State University Press, 2003.
Ayandele, E., Sarkar, B. and Alexandridis, P., "Polyhedral Oligomeric Silsesquioxane (POSS)-Containing Polymer Nanocomposites", Nanomaterials, pp.445-475, 2012.
Camargo, P.E.C., Satyanarayana, K.G. and Wypych, F., "Nanocomposites: Synthesis, Structure, Properties and Opportunities", Material Research, Vol.12, 2009, pp.1-39.
Borgonovo, C., "Aluminum Nano-Composites for Elevated Temperature Applications", Appendix A, Master of Science Thesis in Material Science and Engineering, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 2010.
Sun, X., Stansfield, B. L., Dodelet, J. P. and Dsilets, S., "Growth of Carbon Nanotubes on Carbon Paper by Ohmically Heating Silane-Dispersed Catalytic Sites", Chem. Phys. Lett., Vol.363, pp.415, 2002.
Greef, N.D., Magrez, A., Couteau, E., Locquet, J. P., Forro, L. and Seo, J. W., "Growth of Carbon Nanotubes on Carbon Fibers Without Strength Degradation", Phys. Status Solidi B, Vol.249, No.12, pp.2420-2423, 2012.
Steiner III, S.A., Li, R. and Wardle, L., "Circumventing the Mechanochemical Origins of Strength Loss in the Synthesis of Hierarchical Carbon Fibers", Applied Materials and Interfaces, American Chemical Society, Vol.5, pp.4892-4903, 2013.
Vlasveld, D. P. N., Daud, W., Bersee, H. E. N. and Picken, S. J., "Continuous Fiber Composites with a Nanocomposite Matrix: Improvement of Flexural and Compressive Strength at Elevated Temperatures", Composites: Part A, Vol.38, pp.730-738, 2007.
"Nanostitching Could Strengthen Airplane Skins, More", Science Daily, March 12, 2009.
Wicks, S.S., de Villoria, R. G. and Wardle, B., L., "Interlaminar and Intralaminar Reinforcement of Composite Laminates with Aligned Carbon Nanotubes", Composites Science and Technology, Vol.70, Issue 1, pp.20-28, January, 2010.
Cao, X., Lee, L. J., Widya, T. and Macosko, C., "Polyurethane/Clay Nanocomposites Foams: Processing, Structure and Properties", Polymer, Vol.46, pp.775-783, 2005.
Maleque, M. A. and Abdullahi, U., "Materials and Processing Route for Aircraft Brake System", Inter-national Journal of Mechanical and Materials Engineering (IJMME), Vol.8, pp.14-20, 2013.
Allen, T., Miller, T. and Preston, "Operational Advantages of Carbon Brakes", Aero Quarterly, pp.17- 18, July-September, 2009.
Bakshi, S.R., Lahiri, D. and Agarwal, A., "Carbon Nanotube Reinforced Metal Matrix Composites - A Review", International Materials Reviews, Vol.55, No.1, pp.41-64, 2010.
Compart, A., "Aircraft Retirement Age Drops Again", Aviation Week and Space Technology, July, 2012.
Gkikas, G., Sioulas, D., Lekatou, A., Barkoula, N., M. and Paipetis, A.S., "Enhanced Bonded Aircraft Repair Using Nano-Modified Adhesives", Materials and Design, Vol.41, pp.394-402, 2012.
Kessler, M. R. and Akine, M., "Environmentally Benign Repair of Composites Using High Temperature Cyanate Ester Nanocomposites", Final Report SERDP Project WP-1580, October, 2010.
Sheng, X., "Polymer Nanocomposites for High Temperature Composite Repair", Iowa State University, 2008, Graduate Theses and Dissertations, Paper Number 10282.
Gogotsi, Y. G. and Uvarova, I.V., "Nanostructured Materials and Coatings for Biomedical and Sensor Applications, Springer, 2003.
Wei, R., Cheruvu, N. S. and Coulter, K. E., "Super Hard, Very Tough", Spring 2008 Technology Today, Southwest Research Institute.
Wood Karen., "Ceramic-Matrix Composites Heat Up", High Performance Composites, pp.38-45, November, 2013.
Sanchez, C., Julian, B., Belleville, P. and Popall, M., "Hybrid Materials: A Very Old History from Mother Nature to Man-Made Materials", Journal of Materials Chemistry, Vol.15, pp.3559-3560, 2005.
Peng, H-X., "Polyurethane Nanocomposite Coatings for Aeronautical Applications", Chapter 8 in "Multifunctional Polymer Nanocomposites", Ed. by Jinsong, L., 2011, CRC Press.
Asfa-Wossen, L., "Nanocomposites Take Flight- HiPerNano 2012 Report", Materials World Magazine, June 04, 2012.
Johnson, D., "When a Two-Percent Solution Equals $22 Million, Nanotechnology Matters", IEEE Spectrum, February 14, 2011.
Thomas, S.K., Cassoni, R. P. and MacArthur, C., D., "Aircraft Anti-Icing and De-Icing Techniques and Modeling", Journal of Aircraft, Vol.33, No.5, September- October, 1996.
Leng, J. and Lau, A. K., "Multifunctional Polymer Nanocomposites", CRC Press, January, 2011.
Shi, H., Ok, J.G., Baac, H. W. and Guo, L. J., "Low Density Carbon Nanotube Forest as an Index- Matched and Near Perfect Absorption Coating", Applied Physics Letters, Vol.99, Issue 21, 211103, 2011.
Dillow, C., "Carbon Nanotube Stealth Paint Could Make Any Object Ultra-Black", Popular Science, December 6, 2011.
Katz, J., "Lockheed Martin Gives Innovation New Wings", Industry Week, May 14, 2012.
Johnson, D., "Aircraft Nanocomposites that Provide Early Warning System for Structural Failures", IEEE Spectrum, November, 2011.
Williams, M., "Nano-infused Paint can Detect Strain", RICE University News and Media, June 21, 2012.
"Nano-Infused Paint can Detect Strain", Design Products and Applications, June 25, 2012.
Chakravarthi, D.K., Khabashesku, V.N., Vaidyanathan, R., Blaine, J., Yarlagadda, S., Roseman, D., Zeng, Q. and Barrera, E. V., "Carbon Fiber- Bismaleimide Composites Filled with Nickel-Coated Single- Walled Carbon Nanotubes for Lightning Strike Protection", Advanced Functional Materials, Vol.21, pp.2527-2533, 2011.
Black, S., "Lightning Strike Protection Strategies for Composite Aircraft", High Performance Composites, pp.52-57, May, 2013.
Chong, D., "Nanotechnology for Aerospace Applications: The Potential, www.nasc.com/nanometa /Plenary%20Talk%20Chong.pdf, 2009.
Edelmann, K., Rackers, B. and Farmer, B., L., "Nanocomposites for Future Airbus Airframes", www.dlr.de/fa/Portaldata/17/Resources/.../institut/. ../Edelmann.pdf , 2008.
"Carbon Nanotubes Take Flight in Aerobatic Aircraft", Composites World, 2008. http://www.compositesworld. com/news/carbon-nanotubes-take-flight -in-aerobatic-aircraft.